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Saadi Dynasty History And Greatest Extent Powerful Rulers

Introduction

The Saadi Dynasty, also known as the Saadian or Sa’did Dynasty, was a Sharifian Muslim ruling house that governed Morocco during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Emerging from the southern Moroccan region of the Draa Valley, the Saadis rose to power during a period of political fragmentation, Portuguese coastal expansion, and competition between Morocco and the Ottoman Empire.

The dynasty became a major force in Moroccan history after challenging the Wattasid rulers and resisting Portuguese occupation of important coastal cities. Under its most powerful sultan, Ahmad al-Mansur, Morocco achieved a period of considerable political prestige, economic activity, and architectural development. The Saadis also extended their influence across the Sahara through a military expedition against the Songhai Empire in 1591.

The Saadi period is remembered for the Battle of the Three Kings in 1578, the flourishing of Marrakesh as a royal capital, the construction of the El Badi Palace and the Saadian Tombs, and the development of Moroccan diplomatic relations with European and Ottoman powers.

However, the dynasty’s achievements depended heavily on the authority and political skills of individual rulers. Following the death of Ahmad al-Mansur in 1603, succession disputes and rival claims to the throne weakened the central government. The Saadi state eventually fragmented, allowing the Alawite dynasty to establish a new ruling order in Morocco during the second half of the seventeenth century.

The history of the Saadi Dynasty is therefore a story of religious legitimacy, military resistance, regional expansion, cultural achievement, and political decline.

Saadi Dynasty at a Glance

Historical Background: Morocco Before the Saadis

The rise of the Saadi Dynasty took place during a period of political instability in Morocco. The Marinid Dynasty, which had ruled much of Morocco after the Almohads, lost authority during the fifteenth century. The Wattasid family subsequently emerged as the dominant political power, but its control was challenged by local leaders and regional movements.

At the same time, Portuguese expansion along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts placed pressure on Moroccan cities and trade routes. Portuguese forces captured or occupied several coastal locations, including important ports and fortified settlements.

These developments created a political environment in which local religious leaders and regional dynasties could gain support by opposing foreign occupation and promising to restore political unity.

The Saadis emerged in southern Morocco, where they developed a following among communities in the Sous region and the Draa Valley. Their Sharifian lineage claims helped strengthen their religious and political legitimacy.

Portuguese Expansion in Morocco

Portuguese expansion into Morocco began in the early fifteenth century. The occupation of coastal settlements affected trade, local political authority, and the security of communities in the region.

The Saadi movement gained support partly through its opposition to Portuguese power. Its leaders organized military campaigns against Portuguese-held positions and presented their struggle as a defence of Moroccan Muslim communities.

The capture of Agadir in 1541 was particularly important. It demonstrated the Saadis’ growing military strength and weakened the Portuguese position along the southern Moroccan coast.

Decline of the Wattasids

The Wattasid rulers struggled to maintain authority across Morocco. Their political position was weakened by regional opposition, Portuguese expansion, and the growing strength of the Saadi movement.

The Saadis gradually expanded northward from their southern base. Their military successes and religious legitimacy attracted support from communities dissatisfied with the existing political order.

By the middle of the sixteenth century, the Saadis had become the leading political force in Morocco.

Origins and Rise of the Saadi Dynasty

Muhammad al-Qa’im: Founder of the Saadi Movement

Muhammad al-Qa’im is generally regarded as the founder of the Saadi movement. He emerged as a religious and political leader in southern Morocco during the early sixteenth century.

His family claimed descent from the Prophet Muhammad through the Sharifian line. Such claims were politically significant in Morocco, where religious legitimacy could strengthen a ruler’s authority.

Al-Qa’im and his followers developed a movement that combined religious leadership with opposition to Portuguese occupation and the weakness of the Wattasid government.

Ahmad al-A’raj and the Capture of Marrakesh

Muhammad al-Qa’im’s sons continued the movement after his death. Ahmad al-A’raj and Muhammad al-Shaykh played important roles in expanding Saadi authority.

Ahmad al-A’raj gained control of Marrakesh in 1525. The city was an important political and economic centre, and its capture strengthened the Saadi position in southern Morocco.

The Saadi leadership subsequently developed its authority through military campaigns, alliances, and the gradual weakening of the Wattasid state.

Muhammad al-Shaykh and the Conquest of Fez

Muhammad al-Shaykh became the most important Saadi ruler during the dynasty’s early rise.

He strengthened Saadi power in southern Morocco, challenged Portuguese positions, and expanded into northern territories. His forces eventually captured Fez in 1549, establishing Saadi authority over much of Morocco.

The conquest of Fez marked a major turning point. The Saadis had displaced the Wattasids as the leading ruling dynasty and established a new political order.

Muhammad al-Shaykh also faced pressure from the Ottoman Empire, which had expanded its influence across much of North Africa. Morocco remained politically independent, but its rulers had to manage a difficult balance between Ottoman power and European interests.

Assassination of Muhammad al-Shaykh

Muhammad al-Shaykh was assassinated in 1557 by an Ottoman agent. His death created a period of uncertainty, but the Saadi dynasty remained in power under his descendants.

The dynasty’s ability to survive this crisis demonstrated the strength of its political and military foundations, although internal rivalries would later become a major weakness.

Greatest Extent of the Saadi Dynasty

The Saadi Dynasty reached its greatest political influence during the reign of Ahmad al-Mansur (1578–1603).

At its height, the dynasty governed most of present-day Morocco and exercised influence over parts of the western Sahara. Its power also extended southward through the conquest of the Songhai Empire’s principal centres along the Niger River.

However, the extent of Saadi control varied significantly across regions. Morocco’s central government maintained stronger authority in its core territories, while its influence in the Saharan and Niger regions depended on military occupation, tribute, local officials, and alliances.

Core Territories

The Saadi state controlled the principal Moroccan centres, including:

• Marrakesh
• Fez
• Taroudant
• The Sous region
• The Draa Valley
• Major Atlantic and inland trade routes

These territories formed the political and economic foundation of the dynasty.

Saharan Influence

Saadi power extended southward through trans-Saharan trade routes and military campaigns. The dynasty sought to secure access to commercial networks that connected Morocco with the western Sudan, including the gold-producing regions of West Africa.

The 1591 expedition against Songhai expanded Saadi influence into the Niger bend. However, the conquest did not create a stable, fully integrated empire across all the territories previously governed by Songhai.

Political Limits of Saadi Expansion

The Saadi rulers faced important limitations:

• The Sahara made communication and administration difficult.
• Local authorities retained considerable influence in many regions.
• The Niger territories were distant from Morocco’s principal centres.
• Military occupation required continued financial and logistical support.
• The dynasty’s power depended heavily on the strength of its ruling sultan.

These limitations became more serious after Ahmad al-Mansur’s death.

Powerful Rulers of the Saadi Dynasty

The Saadi Dynasty was shaped by several rulers whose policies influenced its rise, consolidation, and decline.

Muhammad al-Qa’im (Early 16th Century)

Muhammad al-Qa’im established the foundations of the Saadi movement in southern Morocco. His religious authority and opposition to Portuguese expansion helped attract supporters.

Although he did not rule the entire Moroccan state, his leadership created the political and religious foundation from which the dynasty emerged.

Ahmad al-A’raj (c. 1517–1544)

Ahmad al-A’raj was one of the founder’s sons and an important early Saadi leader. He helped expand the movement’s authority and captured Marrakesh in 1525.

His role in the early expansion of Saadi power was significant, although later rivalries within the family affected his position.

Muhammad al-Shaykh (1544–1557)

Muhammad al-Shaykh was one of the most important rulers in the dynasty’s rise.

His major achievements included:

• Strengthening Saadi military organization.
• Capturing Fez in 1549.
• Defeating the Wattasid ruling house.
• Expanding Saadi authority across Morocco.
• Opposing Portuguese coastal expansion.
• Maintaining Moroccan independence amid Ottoman pressure.

His assassination in 1557 was a serious loss, but the dynasty survived.

Abdallah al-Ghalib (1557–1574)

Abdallah al-Ghalib succeeded his father Muhammad al-Shaykh. His reign was marked by efforts to maintain political stability and preserve Saadi authority.

He strengthened Marrakesh as a royal centre and supported architectural and religious institutions. The Ben Youssef Madrasa, one of the most important educational buildings in Marrakesh, was developed during his reign.

His rule also involved rivalry with other members of the Saadi family, particularly his brothers who sought to challenge his authority.

Muhammad II al-Mutawakkil (1574–1576)

Muhammad II al-Mutawakkil succeeded Abdallah al-Ghalib. His reign was brief and contested.

His uncle Abd al-Malik returned from Ottoman territory and challenged his claim to the throne. The conflict eventually led to the Portuguese intervention that culminated in the Battle of the Three Kings in 1578.

Abd al-Malik (1576–1578)

Abd al-Malik was a Saadi ruler who had spent years in exile in the Ottoman Empire. With Ottoman support, he returned to Morocco and captured the throne from Muhammad al-Mutawakkil.

His reign was short, but he played a major role in the dynasty’s most famous military victory. Abd al-Malik died during the Battle of the Three Kings in 1578, after which his brother Ahmad al-Mansur became sultan.

Ahmad al-Mansur (1578–1603)

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Ahmad al-Mansur, also known as Ahmad al-Dhahabi or “the Golden,” was the most powerful Saadi ruler.

He became sultan after the Moroccan victory at the Battle of the Three Kings. His reign strengthened the dynasty’s political prestige, expanded its diplomatic relationships, and supported major architectural projects.

His achievements included:

• Consolidating Saadi authority across Morocco.
• Developing Marrakesh as a prestigious royal capital.
• Expanding diplomatic relations with European and Ottoman powers.
• Supporting the construction of El Badi Palace.
• Expanding the Saadian Tombs.
• Organizing the 1591 expedition against Songhai.
• Strengthening royal administration and court culture.

His reign represented the peak of Saadi political influence. However, the state remained heavily dependent on his personal authority and the revenues generated by trade, taxation, and military expansion.

Successors of Ahmad al-Mansur

After Ahmad al-Mansur’s death in 1603, his sons competed for the throne. The resulting conflicts weakened the dynasty and fragmented its authority.

The later Saadi rulers faced difficulties maintaining unity, controlling regional elites, and managing the growing influence of religious and political movements.

Battle of the Three Kings (1578)

The Battle of the Three Kings, also known as the Battle of Wadi al-Makhazin or the Battle of Alcácer Quibir, was one of the most significant events in Moroccan history.

The battle took place on 4 August 1578 between the Saadi forces of Sultan Abd al-Malik and a Portuguese expedition led by King Sebastian I. The expedition also supported the former Saadi ruler Muhammad al-Mutawakkil, who sought to regain the throne.

Causes of the Battle

The conflict emerged from a combination of dynastic rivalry and Portuguese expansionist ambitions.

King Sebastian of Portugal sought to intervene in Moroccan politics and restore Muhammad al-Mutawakkil to power. Abd al-Malik, who had gained the throne with Ottoman assistance, viewed the expedition as a threat to Saadi authority.

The Portuguese army entered Morocco in an attempt to defeat Abd al-Malik and establish a friendly ruler.

The Course of the Battle

The two armies met near Wadi al-Makhazin in northern Morocco.

The Saadi forces used their military organization and knowledge of the region to defeat the Portuguese expedition. The battle resulted in the deaths of three rulers:

• King Sebastian I of Portugal.
• Sultan Abd al-Malik of Morocco.
• Muhammad al-Mutawakkil, the rival Saadi claimant.

Abd al-Malik died during the battle, and his brother Ahmad al-Mansur succeeded him.

Consequences of the Battle

The victory had major consequences for Morocco and Portugal.

It strengthened Saadi political legitimacy and prevented the Portuguese from establishing a new client ruler in Morocco. The defeat also caused a succession crisis in Portugal, which later came under the rule of the Spanish Habsburg monarchy.

The battle increased Morocco’s diplomatic prestige and contributed to Ahmad al-Mansur’s reputation as a powerful ruler.

Ahmad al-Mansur and the Golden Age of Saadi Morocco

Ahmad al-Mansur’s reign from 1578 to 1603 is often described as the high point of the Saadi Dynasty.

His government sought to strengthen royal authority, increase revenue, expand trade, and develop a prestigious court culture.

Royal Administration

Ahmad al-Mansur strengthened the central administration and relied on officials, military commanders, and diplomatic representatives to manage the state.

He maintained a court that emphasized royal ceremony and political legitimacy. His government also sought to balance relationships with regional elites and religious leaders.

Diplomatic Relations

The Saadi state maintained diplomatic relations with several major powers, including the Ottoman Empire, Spain, England, and France.

Ahmad al-Mansur used diplomacy to preserve Moroccan independence and reduce the risk of foreign intervention. He also pursued commercial and military contacts with European states.

Economic Prosperity

Morocco benefited from trade across the Sahara, the Atlantic coast, and the Mediterranean.

The Saadi government sought to secure trade routes and increase royal revenues. Commercial activity included sugar, gold, textiles, and other goods exchanged between Morocco, Europe, and the western Sudan.

Royal Patronage

Ahmad al-Mansur supported architecture, religious institutions, and court culture. His projects helped make Marrakesh a major centre of Moroccan artistic and political life.

The El Badi Palace became a symbol of royal prestige, while the Saadian Tombs were expanded into an elaborate royal necropolis.

Limits of the Golden Age

Despite its achievements, the Saadi state faced structural challenges. The government depended on the ruler’s personal authority and on revenues that could fluctuate.

The costly military expedition into Songhai, internal rivalries, epidemics, and later succession conflicts weakened the dynasty’s foundations.

The period of prosperity therefore did not guarantee long-term political stability.

Saadi Dynasty’s Songhai Campaign (1591)

One of the most consequential military undertakings of Ahmad al-Mansur’s reign was the expedition against the Songhai Empire in West Africa.

Songhai was a major West African state whose political and commercial centres included Gao and Timbuktu. Its wealth was connected to trans-Saharan commerce, including gold, salt, and other goods.

Reasons for the Expedition

The Saadi government sought to strengthen its economic and political position by gaining influence over trans-Saharan trade.

The expedition had several objectives:

• Secure access to Saharan commercial routes.
• Increase royal revenue through control of trade and tribute.
• Expand Saadi political influence south of the Sahara.
• Strengthen Ahmad al-Mansur’s prestige.
• Challenge the independence of the Songhai Empire.

Battle of Tondibi (1591)

The Saadi expeditionary force, led by Judar Pasha, crossed the Sahara and confronted Songhai forces at the Battle of Tondibi in March 1591.

The Moroccan army used firearms, including arquebuses, while the Songhai forces relied heavily on cavalry and traditional military formations.

The Moroccan expedition defeated the Songhai army, opening the way toward Gao and Timbuktu.

Occupation of Timbuktu and Gao

Following the defeat of Songhai forces, the Saadi expedition occupied important centres along the Niger River.

Timbuktu became a major centre of the Moroccan-administered territory, while Gao remained important to the region’s political and commercial life.

The Saadi government established a system of military and administrative control, often described as the Pashalik of Timbuktu.

Economic Consequences

The conquest provided access to commercial resources and tribute, including gold. These revenues contributed to the finances of Ahmad al-Mansur’s government.

However, the occupation also faced serious challenges. The distance from Morocco, local resistance, logistical difficulties, and the weakening of central Saadi authority made long-term control difficult.

The expedition did not create a stable and fully integrated Saadi empire across all former Songhai territories.

Long-Term Impact

The conquest transformed political authority in the Niger bend. Moroccan military officials and their descendants became influential in the region, while local communities and institutions continued to shape political life.

The campaign is an important example of the connection between trans-Saharan trade, military expansion, and political competition in early modern African history.

Economy and Trade Under the Saadi Dynasty

The Saadi economy depended on agriculture, trade, taxation, and trans-Saharan commercial networks.

Morocco’s geographical position connected the Mediterranean world with the Sahara and western Africa. The dynasty’s rulers sought to strengthen these connections while maintaining control over important ports, markets, and caravan routes.

Agriculture

Agriculture supported much of Morocco’s population and provided revenue for the state.

The fertile plains and river valleys produced cereals, fruits, and other crops. Agricultural production supported urban markets and supplied the royal administration and military.

Trans-Saharan Trade

Trade across the Sahara connected Morocco with West African commercial centres.

Important goods included:

• Gold.
• Salt.
• Sugar.
• Textiles.
• Leather goods.
• Agricultural products.
• Other commodities exchanged through caravan networks.

The Saadi government sought to secure these routes and benefit from commercial revenues.

Sugar Production

Sugar was an important Moroccan export during the Saadi period. Production in southern Morocco and the Sous region contributed to the dynasty’s commercial strength.

Sugar was traded with European markets and helped generate revenue for merchants and the state.

Taxation and Royal Revenue

The government collected taxes from agriculture, trade, and urban markets. Military campaigns and control over trade routes also contributed to royal income.

However, the state faced difficulties maintaining stable revenue, particularly during periods of conflict, epidemic disease, and political fragmentation.

Culture, Architecture, and Scholarship

The Saadi Dynasty supported architecture, religious education, and artistic production. Marrakesh became a major centre of royal patronage during the sixteenth century.

The dynasty’s cultural achievements reflected local Moroccan traditions as well as wider connections with the Mediterranean, the Sahara, and the Islamic world.

El Badi Palace

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El Badi Palace was commissioned by Ahmad al-Mansur after the Battle of the Three Kings.

The palace was designed to express royal prestige and the power of the Saadi state. Its construction drew on a range of architectural and decorative traditions.

Although much of the palace was later dismantled, its ruins remain an important historical monument in Marrakesh.

Saadian Tombs

<AsyncImage query=”Saadian Tombs Marrakesh Chamber of Twelve Columns” aspectRatio=”5:4″ maxWidth=”240px”/>

The Saadian Tombs in Marrakesh are among the most important surviving monuments of the dynasty.

The royal necropolis contains the tombs of members of the Saadi ruling family. Its architecture includes carved stucco, decorative tilework, marble columns, and elaborate ceiling designs.

The complex was developed under Abdallah al-Ghalib and expanded by Ahmad al-Mansur.

Ben Youssef Madrasa

The Ben Youssef Madrasa in Marrakesh was developed during the reign of Abdallah al-Ghalib.

It became one of the most important centres of Islamic education in Morocco. Its architectural decoration and educational function reflect the Saadi commitment to religious and scholarly institutions.

Royal Court Culture

The Saadi court supported poetry, scholarship, religious learning, diplomacy, and architecture.

Ahmad al-Mansur used court ceremony and monumental construction to strengthen his political image and reinforce his claims to Sharifian and caliphal legitimacy.

Decline and Fall of the Saadi Dynasty

The decline of the Saadi Dynasty began after the death of Ahmad al-Mansur in 1603.

His death removed the central figure who had maintained the dynasty’s political balance. His sons and other relatives competed for power, weakening the central government and allowing regional authorities to become more independent.

Succession Struggles

The Saadi succession was marked by rivalry among the ruler’s descendants.

Competing claimants established separate centres of authority, and the dynasty’s political unity deteriorated.

These conflicts weakened the military, disrupted trade, and reduced the government’s ability to control regional elites.

Economic and Administrative Weakness

The later Saadi rulers struggled to maintain the financial and administrative structures developed under Ahmad al-Mansur.

The government faced the effects of epidemics, economic disruption, and costly political conflicts. The loss of effective control over the Niger region also reduced access to some sources of revenue.

Rise of Religious and Regional Movements

Religious leaders and regional movements gained influence during the period of political fragmentation.

The Dila’iyya movement and other local authorities challenged the Saadi rulers. In several areas, religious and regional leaders became more influential than the central government.

The Alawite Rise

The Alawite dynasty emerged in the Tafilalt region of southeastern Morocco.

Mawlay al-Sharif and his son Mawlay Muhammad established the foundations of Alawite authority. Mawlay al-Rashid later expanded the dynasty’s power and captured Fez in 1666.

The Alawites gradually consolidated their control over Morocco, replacing the fragmented Saadi political order.

End of the Saadi Dynasty

The Saadi dynasty’s political rule is generally dated to its final collapse in 1659, when the last Saadi sultan, Ahmad al-Abbas, was killed amid factional conflict.

Alawite consolidation continued afterward, with Mawlay al-Rashid capturing Marrakesh in 1668 and establishing a more durable ruling order.

The end of Saadi rule marked the transition to the Alawite dynasty, which continues to rule Morocco today.

Timeline of the Saadi Dynasty

Frequently Asked Questions About the Saadi Dynasty

1. What was the Saadi Dynasty?

The Saadi Dynasty was a Sharifian Muslim ruling house that governed Morocco during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It rose to power by challenging the Wattasids and resisting Portuguese expansion.

2. When did the Saadi Dynasty rule Morocco?

The dynasty’s period is commonly dated from the early sixteenth century, with its rule ending in 1659. Some historical chronologies use different starting dates depending on whether they refer to the emergence of the movement or its establishment as the ruling dynasty.

3. Who founded the Saadi Dynasty?

Muhammad al-Qa’im is generally regarded as the founder of the Saadi movement. His descendants, particularly Muhammad al-Shaykh, established the dynasty’s control over Morocco.

4. Who was the most powerful Saadi ruler?

Ahmad al-Mansur, who ruled from 1578 to 1603, is generally considered the dynasty’s most powerful ruler. His reign followed the Moroccan victory at the Battle of the Three Kings.

5. What was the Battle of the Three Kings?

The Battle of the Three Kings was fought in Morocco in 1578 between Saadi forces and a Portuguese expedition led by King Sebastian I. The Moroccan victory strengthened Saadi rule and brought Ahmad al-Mansur to the throne.

6. Why was the Battle of the Three Kings important?

The battle prevented a Portuguese-backed claimant from regaining the Moroccan throne, strengthened Saadi legitimacy, and increased Morocco’s diplomatic prestige.

7. What was the greatest extent of the Saadi Dynasty?

The dynasty reached its greatest influence under Ahmad al-Mansur. It controlled most of Morocco and expanded its influence into the western Sahara and parts of the Niger region after the 1591 expedition against Songhai.

8. Did the Saadi Dynasty conquer the Songhai Empire?

Saadi forces defeated Songhai at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591 and occupied important centres such as Timbuktu and Gao. However, the conquest did not create a stable, fully integrated empire over all former Songhai territories.

9. What was the importance of Ahmad al-Mansur?

Ahmad al-Mansur strengthened Saadi authority, expanded diplomatic relations, supported major architectural projects, and led the campaign against Songhai. His reign represented the peak of Saadi political influence.

10. What were the major achievements of the Saadi Dynasty?

Major achievements included resisting Portuguese expansion, consolidating Moroccan rule, supporting trade, developing Marrakesh’s architecture, and expanding Saadi influence across the Sahara.

11. What were the main architectural achievements of the Saadis?

The dynasty is associated with El Badi Palace, the Saadian Tombs, and the Ben Youssef Madrasa in Marrakesh. These buildings reflect the period’s royal patronage and artistic traditions.

12. Why did the Saadi Dynasty decline?

The dynasty declined because of succession struggles, regional rebellions, weakening central authority, economic difficulties, and the rise of rival political and religious movements.

13. Who replaced the Saadi Dynasty?

The Alawite dynasty replaced the Saadis. Mawlay al-Rashid expanded Alawite power during the 1660s and captured Marrakesh in 1668.

14. Was the Saadi Dynasty an Islamic dynasty?

Yes. The Saadi rulers were Sunni Muslim rulers who claimed Sharifian descent from the Prophet Muhammad. Their political legitimacy was closely connected to religious identity and Islamic institutions.

15. What is the legacy of the Saadi Dynasty?

The Saadi legacy includes the strengthening of Moroccan political independence, resistance to Portuguese expansion, trans-Saharan military and commercial connections, and major architectural monuments in Marrakesh.

Conclusion

• The Saadi Dynasty was one of the most consequential ruling houses in Moroccan history. Emerging from southern Morocco during a period of political instability and Portuguese expansion, it gradually displaced the Wattasids and established a new political order.
• The dynasty reached its greatest influence under Ahmad al-Mansur, whose reign strengthened royal authority, developed diplomatic relations, supported architectural achievements, and expanded Saadi influence into the western Sudan through the 1591 expedition against Songhai.
• The Saadi period also left a lasting cultural legacy. The Saadian Tombs, El Badi Palace, and Ben Youssef Madrasa remain important monuments of Morocco’s architectural and scholarly heritage.
• However, the dynasty’s political strength depended heavily on the authority of individual rulers. After Ahmad al-Mansur’s death in 1603, succession disputes and regional opposition weakened the state. By 1659, Saadi rule had ended, and the Alawite dynasty began consolidating a new political order.
• The Saadi Dynasty should therefore be understood as a period of both achievement and instability: a time when Morocco resisted foreign intervention, developed its regional influence, and produced important cultural monuments, while also experiencing the internal divisions that eventually brought the dynasty to an end.